Some exegetes treat the first pericope of this chapter, Romans 13:1–10 as an alone-standing, independent admonitory passage concerning civil government. According to the German New Testament scholars Otto Michel1, Ernst2 and others, Paul here inserted an existing admonition into an unrelated section when authoring the letter to the Romans. They view this specific section as strikingly un-Christological and as forming a strange element in this section of the letter. The American scholar Theodore L. Carter3 attempts to clarify this apparent strangeness
by arguing that Romans 13 was written in an ironic trope, meaning that because the readers already had extremely negative experiences in their interactions with the government, they would have understood that Paul here actually means the opposite of what he writes. The American Pauline scholar Mark D. Nanos4 views the entire problem is non-existent, however, arguing that5 does not address the issue of civil government at all but rather the ecclesiastical governments of the synagogues to which the Gentile Christians are called to submit themselves, and that the taxes referred to here is the temple tax.
To understand Romans 13:1–10 properly, it is important not to view this section as an isolated pericope dealing with the topic of civil government. It should rather be read as a subdivision of a series of exhortations regarding sacrifice and love into which it has been inserted (see Romans 12:3–21 and Romans 13:11–14). In Romans 12:9–21 Paul called for a general love of humanity, but simultaneously highlighted that our interactions within the Christian community is the place where this love originates and practically manifests. After all, the universal love for all people is exhibited firstly in the mutual love manifested in our relationships. In Romans 13:1–10 Paul is therefore shifting the emphasis to the attitude of love in society, with Romans 13:11–14 specifically highlighting the theme of love and sacrifice.
The very fact that this section has been imbedded in between Romans 12:1–21 and Romans 14:1–23 renders it highly improbable that Paul is merely intending to provide practical advice here in Romans 13:1–7. Some have argued that he wants Christians to temporarily assume an attitude of subjection for the sake of avoiding tensions (Tellbe6; see also Légasse7). Paul would then be supposedly writing so mildly concerning civil government, precisely because when he had written the letter at the beginning of Nero’s reign while there was peace and quiet, which would however end soon after he had written Romans 13:1–14.8Another commentator argues that the apostle values the status quo to avoid another expulsion of Christians from Rome, which would endanger Paul’s plans for preaching the gospel in Spain.9 Another suggests that Paul wanted the Gentile Christians to remain discreet so as not to endanger the Jews who had returned to Rome and who were in an extremely vulnerable position.10
In our context Romans 13:1–14 is often referred to in discussions pertainting the place and the task of government. For this reason, it is often subjected to questions it was never intended to address. Is Paul not perhaps too uncritical of the state? How does this relate to the right of resistance? These are typically modern questions originating from a context in which the concept of the state
has been developed and in which democratic structures have been adopted. In Paul’s political context there had been no conception of the modern state the way we tend to conceptualize it today. Like today there were indeed specific rulers as persons in positions of authority, but a constitutional state with structures that transcend particular persons or cities was unknown. Questions regarding the right of resistance and criticism concerning government policy are therefore not relevant when it comes to Romans 13:1–14. Paul is, after all, not speaking to the people in governing positions here, but rather to their subjects, Christians. The antithesis of his appeal not to resist the authorities is therefore not criticism of the authorities, but rebellion in the sense of not heeding them at all (cf. Merklein11).
Paul rather directs his focus to a topic that was highly relevant in his own context: nations subjected to the power of Rome, but trying to avoid paying the taxes imposed upon them. Powerless people in the large cities also cursed the rich and the powerful. In this regard it is vital to note that in the second century the church father Tertullian pointed out how remarkable it was that Christians in the marketplace are distinguished by the fact that they do not take part in the general grumbling and cursing (which is briefly silenced when a person in a governing position passes by). By contrast, in their services Christians pray for the authorities in the city and in the realm:
Looking to God, we Christians pray with outstretched hands, because we are innocent; with head uncovered, because we do not have to be ashamed; and without a leader, because our prayer comes from the heart. So we pray constantly for long life for all emperors, for governing authorities that enable us to be free of care, for the safety of our house, for brave armies, a faithful Senate, and a virtuous nation, and for peace in the world; in short, for everything that a citizen and an emperor can wish for
(Tertullian, Apologeticum 30, 4).
Christian love does not cease when our self-interest is at stake, and it does not halt when haughty authorities assume power. Christians learn to be exemplary in doing good even in a corrupt society.12
In various letters found in the New Testament, we witness how respect for authorities is described as a strong form of love towards our fellowman. Even the people who are in positions of authority and who are often hated by the public, are now being approached with a new attitude. This also applies to the passages where slaves are encouraged to be subject to their masters, even bad masters, just as it applies to others who occupy exalted positions in society. Paul, for example writes to Titus: Remind them to be submissive to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for every good work, to speak evil of no one, to avoid quarrelling, to be gentle, and to show perfect courtesy toward all people
(Titus 3:1–2). This passage highlights how love of our neighbour, good works, and obedience to people in positions of authority are all interrelated. This is also apparent also from what Paul writes to Timothy: First of all, then, I urge that supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings be made for all people, for kings and all who are in high positions, that we may lead a peaceful and quiet life, godly and dignified in every way. This is good, and it is pleasing in the sight of God our Savior, who desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth. For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus
(1 Timothy 2:1–5).
Romans 13:1–14 must also be read as a continuation of a longer passage starting at Romans 12:21 and not as a new or separate section concerning the topic of the civil government. Understood in this way, it fundamentally addresses the attitude one must have toward your fellowman who have been placed in positions of power over you and others. Some translations here use the abstract word, government,
but Paul actually speaks very specifically about people here, such as tax collectors, for example (Romans 13:6). In other words, the commands here pertain to the relationships between people, that is, to all kinds of people to whom you must exhibit acts of love, which sometimes also entails obedience and subjection (Romans 13:7–8).
The further development of the principles outlined at the start of the chapter in Romans 13:8–10 makes it crystal clear that love within the context of society is the overarching topic throughout the passage as a whole. We owe this love to all, including those in government, even if they are often hated by the public. Love is the only debt that is never fully repaid, but which continues to demand interest from us every day. Romans 13:11–14 then functions as a kind of postscript to the section about love in and outside the church. If the kingdom of love is to be victorious, the will of man must be clothed with the armour of Christ in obedience to God, thereby conquering the Spirit-less kingdom of desire. This is, by definition, a struggle between light and darkness.13
1 Que toute personne soit soumise aux autorités supérieures; car il n'y a point d'autorité qui ne vienne de Dieu, et les autorités qui existent ont été instituées de Dieu.