The book of Esther mentions King Ahasuerus twenty-nine times. This name has not been found in any historical records outside the Bible. In the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament), he is called Artaxerxes, but many scholars believe that he is actually Xerxes I (who ruled from 486–465 BC). Xerxes ruled a huge empire stretching from India to Kush (modern-day Nubia, not Ethiopia).
Some have suggested that Ahasuerus might instead be another Persian king—such as Darius I the Great (522–486 BC), Cyrus I, Cambyses I, Cyrus II the Great, Cambyses II, Artaxerxes I, or one of their successors.
According to Jones, there are several important reasons to think that Ahasuerus might be Darius I:
Ahasuerus ruled 127 provinces (Esther 1:1). Ahasuerus could be a royal title, not a personal name. The same title, Ahasuerus, appears in Daniel 9:1 as the father of Darius.
Esther 1:14 mentions
the seven princes of Persia and Media,
putting Persia first. In Daniel 6, during Darius the Mede’s reign, Media is listed first. This change suggests that Ahasuerus ruled after the Persians had gained power, so he cannot be Darius the Mede.Darius the Mede had 120 rulers over his kingdom (Daniel 6:1), but Ahasuerus ruled 127 provinces (Esther 1:1), showing an increase in size.
When Xerxes I began to rule, he lost some provinces, so Ahasuerus must have ruled before Xerxes.
India was first conquered under Darius I around 506 BC. Since Esther 1:1 says Ahasuerus ruled
from India to Kush,
this king cannot have reigned before Darius I.Esther 10:1 says Ahasuerus collected taxes on islands and coastlands. Ancient historians say Darius did the same in 496 BC, after conquering islands in the Aegean Sea.
The palace at Susa, which plays a major role in Esther, was rebuilt and beautified by Darius I.
Darius I also had a council of seven wise men, like the seven royal advisers in Esther 1:14.
Historical records say Darius lost control of the Aegean islands after 479 BC, but the events in Esther happen later in his reign, after he began to tax these regions (Esther 10:1).
Darius was the first Persian king to demand taxes, which fits the story where Haman offers 10,000 talents of silver (Esther 3:9).
Some ancient writings (like 1 Esdras) use the name Darius in stories that resemble parts of Ezra and Esther, showing that kings sometimes had different names in different records.
Mordecai’s age fits better if Ahasuerus is Darius I. If Ahasuerus were Xerxes I, Mordecai would have been over 110 years old—unlikely. But if he lived during Darius I’s time, his age would be about 78–90, which is more realistic.
The events in Esther do not match what we know of Xerxes’ life. For example, in 480 BC, Xerxes was fighting in Greece, but Esther 2:4 says he was at home in his palace.
The name
Ahasuerus
might come from a Persian word like Khshayarsha (the name of Darius’s son, later translated as Xerxes). The Hebrew form, Akhashverosh, could meanmighty king.
Based on these points, Jones believed that Ahasuerus was Darius I, which would place the events of Esther earlier than Xerxes’ reign.
However, many Bible scholars still think Ahasuerus refers to Xerxes I, and their reasons are also worth noting:
The number of provinces might have changed often, so we cannot draw firm conclusions from it.
Xerxes could have searched for a new queen while he was away at war.
The great palace at Susa could not have been completed as early as the third year of Darius, but it could have been finished by the time of Xerxes.
Darius did not yet rule over India or Nubia in his third year, but Xerxes did later claim that his empire stretched from India to Kush (Nubia).
Some translations wrongly say
Ethiopia,
but the original text means Nubia, which fits Xerxes’ empire.
Because of these details, it is most likely that Ahasuerus refers to King Xerxes I, and this is the view most Bible commentaries follow.
The name Ahasuerus is mentioned twenty-nine times in the book of Esther, and twice elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible (Ezra 4:6 and Daniel 9:1). However, in the annals that have been found, no king with that name can be found anywhere. In the main Septuagint text he is called Artaxerxes. Many identify him with Xerxes I (486-465 BC). 1 This Xerxes is known to have ruled from India to Kush (Nubia, not: Ethiopia). Scaliger already made this identification a few centuries ago. F.N. Jones, however, prefers to identify King Ahasuerus with his predecessor Darius I, the Great (522-486). 2
The following kings could be considered as well: Cyrus I (ca. 630-600), Cambyses I (ca. 600-559), Cyrus II, the Great (559-529), Cambyses II (529-522), Darius I Hystaspes the Great (522-486), Xerxes I (486-465), Artaxerxes I Longimanus (465-423), Darius II, Ochus (423-405), Artaxerxes II, and Mnemon (405-359).
According to Jones, the following arguments are important for identifying the king:
a. Esther 1:1 clarifies that the aforementioned Ahasuerus ruled over 127 provinces. Then there must have been more princes who shared this name and that makes it plausible that Ahasuerus is an indicator of royalty. The name or title Ahasuerus is used in Daniel 9:1 for the father of Darius.
b. Esther 1:14 mentions "the seven princes of Persia and Media.” The book of Esther mentions Persia first and then Media (Esther 1:3, Esther 1:18, Esther 1:19). During the reign of Darius the Mede 3 the Medes were mentioned first, before the Persians (Daniel 6:9, Daniel 6:13, Daniel 6:16). During Cyrus' reign over the great kingdom the Persians gained political influence over the Medes and therefore from that time on they are mentioned in reverse order. The Ahasuerus of the book of Esther therefore cannot be Darius the Mede.
c. Darius the Mede appointed 120 princes over the kingdom (Daniel 6:1). In the time of Ahasuerus this number had been increased to 127 provinces (Esther 1:1).
d. The fact that he lost several satrapies at the beginning of his reign argues against the common identification with Xerxes I. 4 Therefore the name Ahasuerus will refer to a king prior to the reign of Xerxes I.
e. Cambyses II subjected all of Egypt (525 BC). He also subdued the Ethiopians, or at least to a large extent. Darius I Hystaspes ruled over this same area, but also conquered India (506 BC). Esther 1:1 states that Ahasuerus ruled from India to Ethiopia. 5 It follows that the Ahasuerus of Esther did not reign before Darius I, the Great.
f. According to Esther 10:1, Ahasuerus imposed tribute on the islands and the coastlands. In 496 BC the fleet of Darius I captured Samos, Chios, Lesbos and the rest of the islands of the Aegean Sea. Herodotus says that Egypt, India, the islands of Cyprus and those of the Eritrean Sea paid tribute to Darius I. 6
g. Susa was expanded and beautified by Darius I in 521 BC. Given the importance of this citadel in the book of Esther, no earlier king can be intended.
h. Darius I established the tradition of having seven wise and powerful men to serve and assist the king (see Esther 1:14). 7
i. Thucydides tells of the Phoenician fleet used by Darius to subdue the islands of the Aegean, and Diodorus Siculus relates that these territories were lost again immediately after 479, with the defeat by the Greeks. That was before his twelfth year of reign. But Ahasuerus probably did not impose taxes until or after his twelfth year (Esther 3:7; Esther 9:1; Esther 10:1).
j. Polynænus writes that Darius was the first Persian to impose tribute. This led Herodotus to write that the Persians called Cyrus a father, Cambyses a master, but Darius a merchant, for Darius sought to make a profit out of everything. This description matches Haman's actions: he gives 10,000 talents of silver (Esther 3:9) and Esther alludes to the loss of income (Esther 7:4).
k The apocryphal book of 1 Esdras (also called 3 Esdras) 3:1-2 (originated around 140 BC) gives similar information as Ezra 1:1–3, but the name Ahasuerus is replaced by Darius (and the 127 provinces by 117). This Darius gives permission to rebuild the temple (4:44-63), in which he is distinguished from Cyrus. The next chapter resembles Ezra 2:1–70. In 6:5 we are informed of the difficulties with building the temple, in which the Artaxerxes in Ezra 4:1–24 is identified with Darius (Esdras 6:5). This at least indicates that the author assumed that kings could have various names, and so it is possible that the Ahasuerus of Esther 1:1–22 could also be called Darius.
l. Jones believes that Esther 2:5–6 does not refer to Kish, but intends to say that Mordecai was taken away during the reign of king Jehoiachin. If Ahasuerus is equated with Xerxes I, Mordecai must have been at least 113 years old (597-484 in the third year; Esther 1:1–3) and at least 125 years old at the end of the book, but with Darius I this can be reduced to 78 and 90 years. This offers the possibility to equate Mordecai in Ezra 2:2 and Nehemiah 7:7 with him.
m. Also of interest is the fact that the book of Esther says nothing about Xerxes' attempt to avenge his father's humiliation in 490 BC (the Greek victory at Marathon). After his defeat at Salamis (late September) in 480 (the sixth year of his reign), Xerxes fled 400 miles in 45 days to the Hellespont (mid-November), which is about 1,300 miles from Susa. Esther was brought into the house of the women in the sixth year of Ahasuerus and into the king's house in the seventh year (Esther 2:12, Esther 2:16). If Ahasuerus is the same as Xerxes, the search for the young girls must have begun in 480, his sixth year, or in 481. These were the years when he was at war with Greece, but according to Esther, Ahasuerus was in his palace at the time (Esther 2:4). The events in Esther do not fit well with the historical data known about Xerxes. If Ahasuerus is the same person as Darius I, his third year would be in 519 BC.
n. The name of Darius' son is given in an inscription as khshayarsha and is sometimes translated as Xerxes. A translation into Hebrew could yield Akhashveros. However, the term xerxes means shah (king) and could be applied to any king. Ahasuerus means the mighty
(Aha) king
(Suerus). In that case Artaxerxes would be a better translation than Xerxes and this was done in the LXX.
Based on these arguments Jones argues for the identification of Ahasuerus with Darius I and thus places the history of Esther somewhat earlier than the reign of Xerxes. Since most Bible commentaries naturally assume the equation with Xerxes and do not argue this further, extra attention has been paid to these historical data here. 8
The above-mentioned argumentation is convincing in providing the reasons why no one before Darius I can be meant by Ahasuerus. The arguments why Xerxes cannot be Ahasuerus, however, are less valid:
a. Due to the turbulent situation in the kingdom, it is difficult to draw conclusions in regard to the number of provinces. Even in the event of a revolt, these regions might still be counted as belonging to the empire of Xerxes.
b. Xerxes could also have his courtiers searching for a new queen while he was on a war expedition.
c. Cambyses II (529-522 BC) died in 522 BC. After his death Darius, as a descendant of the Achaemenids, declared himself heir to the throne. Revolts broke out everywhere and it was not until 520 BC that Darius gained control of most of the rebellious areas. Then, in 519-518 BC, Darius subdued Egypt. He had the city of Susa rebuilt and ordered a completely new palace to be built there, the construction of which took many years. This project would not have started before 518 BC, and moreover, the construction of the palace only began after the digging down to the bedrock. Silver and ivory from Egypt were also used in the palace. 9 That country was not completely subdued again until 518 BC. The palace could therefore never have been completed in the third year
of Darius (Esther 1:3).
d. In the third year of reign, Darius did not yet rule as far as Nubia or over India. According to many, he did not conquer an area on the other side of the Indus until around 506 BC.10 That would have to have been after the events in the book of Esther (until the twelfth year of reign; Esther 3:7).
e. Xerxes himself says in a trilingual inscription, found in Persepolis, that he ruled from India to Cush. 11 Cush is Nubia, not the same as Ethiopia. The latter term is an incorrect translation in various Bible translations (including the ESV, NKJV, and NLT). No Persian king ever penetrated into Ethiopia.
Based on these considerations, it seems most likely that King Ahasuerus refers to Xerxes I, and this is also the assumption followed in this Bible commentary.12
1 Now in the days of Ahasuerus, the Ahasuerus who reigned from India to Ethiopia over 127 provinces,