The reign of Cyrus ushered in the return from exile in 538 BC (2 Chronicles 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–2:70), followed by the rebuilding of the temple under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Joshua, through the prophetic encouragement of Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 5:1–6:22). A second group returned to Jerusalem in 458 BC under the leadership of Ezra the priest (Ezra 7:1–8:36), followed by covenant renewal (1 Chronicles 9:1–10:14). Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem in 445 BC, and under his leadership as governor, the walls were rebuilt with God’s help, despite rising opposition (Nehemiah 1:1–6:19). Restoration and covenant renewal characterize this period, as the community gathers to hear God’s Word read by Ezra and taught by the Levites (1 Chronicles 8:1–9:44). The historical books of Ezra and Nehemiah, along with the prophetical books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, provide insight into life back in Jerusalem as the returnees resettle in the land and adjust to their new circumstances.
In contrast to the glory days of the kingdom, the returnees belonged to a small province within the vast Persian Empire. Instead of being ruled by Davidic kings in Jerusalem, they yoked with foreign Persian kings, such as Cyrus (559–530 BC), Cambyses (530–522 BC), Darius (522–486 BC), Xerxes (486–465 BC), and Artaxerxes I (465–424 BC). Excavations reveal that Persian cities such as Pasargadae (the capital established by Cyrus), Susa (the administrative capital under Darius), and Persepolis (built by Darius) were huge and had colossal administrative and palatial structures that were an important part of the flourishing Persian Empire.
The Empire comprised provinces that were administered by local governors (Esther 1:1). The province of Judah was identified as Yehud. Coins and seals found in the region with the official Yehud stamp testify to the resettlement of the returnees in Jerusalem and the surrounding towns. It is estimated that the province extended north to south some 25 miles. It has been estimated that the settlements in and around Jerusalem (within approximately 2 miles of the city) saw an 89 percent decline in comparison to the flourishing kingdom during the period 1200–1000 BC. This indicates that Jerusalem and surroundings were almost completely empty during the period of the exile. This means that when the exiles returned to Jerusalem under Cyrus, they were facing the daunting task of rebuilding not only their own lives but also their beloved city of Jerusalem, which had been desolate for many years. This would have required great faith and courage to start again with such a formidable task ahead of them.
Governors verified by the biblical accounts during the Persian period include Sheshbazzar (Ezra 1:8; Ezra 5:14), Zerubbabel (Haggai 1:1, Haggai 1:14), and Nehemiah (Nehemiah 5:14; Nehemiah 5:12). The Persian king subjected the provinces to heavy taxation, resulting in vast amounts of gold and silver being drained from them, only to fill the royal treasuries. This put massive pressure on those living in Jerusalem. Loan sharks
were around then as today, some of them Jews who had amassed vast fortunes in the diaspora (for example, Murashu and Sons). They loaned money to people at interest, sometimes as high as 40 percent. These practices caused Nehemiah to rebuke the wealthy Jews among them for their usury that led to the subjugation of their kinsmen (Nehemiah 5:7, Nehemiah 5:11). Food shortages and economic deprivation further worsened the struggles of those living in the province of Yehud. Poverty could result in loss of land, and with the highly inflated price of basic commodities, some found it a struggle to make ends meet (Nehemiah 5:1–13; Haggai 1:9–11; Haggai 2:15–17). Despite the return from exile and rebuilding of the temple, life in the province was not without its difficulties.
In addition, the returnees not only faced political opposition but also contrary religious beliefs. Although temple-building efforts were supported by the Persian kings Cyrus (Ezra 1:1–4) and Darius (Ezra 6:1–12), which was in accordance with their political strategy, the returnees had faced serious opposition to their rebuilding efforts (Ezra 4:1–6:13). The temple was finally rebuilt, and sacrifices were offered (Ezra 6:14–22), but further opposition comes from Sanballat, governor of Samaria, Tobiah the Ammonite official, and Geshem the Arab (Nehemiah 2:10, Nehemiah 2:19; Nehemiah 4:1; Nehemiah 6:1–2). Edwin Yamauchi provides a concise summary of the situation: The exiles returned to a tiny enclave surrounded by hostile neighbours: Samaritans to the north, Ammonites to the east, Arabs and Edomites to the south, and Phoenicians to the west.
1 An example of this opposition is seen during their early rebuilding efforts: Then the peoples around them set out to discourage the people of Judah and make them afraid to go on building. They bribed officials to work against them and frustrate their plans during the entire reign of Cyrus king of Persia and down to the reign of Darius king of Persia
(Ezra 4:4–5; cf. Ezra 4:6–24; Ezra 5:3).2 Things have not changed much down the centuries; unjust and harsh politicians, bribery and corruption characterize life in the modern world as well. It is easy to see why the people were discouraged and demoralised.
Marriages with foreign women also took place during this period, including women from Ashdod, Ammon, and Moab (Nehemiah 13:23; Ezra 9:1–15). Marriage to a foreign woman was not the primary problem. Rather, such marriages had the potential to lead to syncretism and religious compromise. For example, ostraca found at Beersheba reveal that around a third of the names are theophoric, that is, names compounded with the Edomite god Qos. Though this does not automatically translate into worship of these gods, it does reveal the religious pluralism of the period. The point to note is that the Judeans living in the small province of Judah were not only living amid the vast Persian Empire, but they were surrounded by nations with false religious beliefs. The Jewish temple at Elephantine and the sacred site on Mount Gerizim indicate that worship of Yahweh (and other gods) took place beyond the borders of Jerusalem, adding further complexity to the religious milieu of the period. These were the realities facing the returnees living in Jerusalem. Yet amidst such uncertain and changing times, the Chronicler speaks a resounding message of hope—God’s people are to look beyond their circumstances and remember God’s irrevocable calling. They are to recognize that God is at work. While they might feel powerless and not know what to do, they are exhorted to fix their eyes on God.
2 Now the first to dwell again in their possessions in their cities were Israel, the priests, the Levites, and the temple servants.